Report 1:

Women and the Development of New Technology

Prepared for

Dr. Patricia Lin

EWS 425

By

Group JJLCC

Crystal Carter

Crystal Stark

Laura Dills

Jillian Brickey

John Kurka

DIVISION OF WORK

Crystal Carter & Crystal Stark:

The Socialization of Boys and Girls Grade:A

Laura Dills:

Technology’s Significance and Development Grade:A

Jillian Brickey:

Theories Regarding Gender Differences Grade:A

John Kurka:

Women and Technological Development Grade:A

Note: All members contributed equally to the research and organization of this report.

A beautifully written well articulated essay. Congratulations! You’ve done an excellent first assignment. Overall Grade: A

Introduction

This report will address the role of women in the development of technology. In doing so, we will focus on the social factors and the theories regarding gender that help to explain the role of women in technological development.

Before reading this report, the reader must be aware of the current state of affairs with regard to the participation of women in technological development. There is no doubt that women today (as in the past) are a minority in the fields of scientific study and engineering – precisely the fields that breed technological development. This report will try to explain the reasons for this lack of involvement by women in technology. Ö

The idea that fifty percent of the world’s population is inhibited from participating in technology is frightening given the stakes at hand – the progress of all humanity. Although this report offers no solution to the problem, it does offer insight.

The first section of this report introduces the idea of technology and briefly traces its development over history. Second, there is an analysis of the different theories regarding gender differences. Third will be a section on women and technology. Finally, we look at the socialization of girls and boys, and how that has influenced the role of women in technology.

Technology’s Significance and Development

Ö Technology is the technical means people use to improve their surroundings. It’s also knowledge of using tools and machines to do tasks (i.e.,bergen.org). Until the 1970’s we have viewed technology as something that men do – though women have made many of our technological developments. Because of our old definition, generations of women inventors have gone unnoticed, or lost credit to the benefit of men.

The Stone Age is the first proven time when people began to use tools. They were crude tools fashioned out of stone. This change in mankind took place about two million years ago. After the Stone Age came the Bronze Age, when most tools and weapons were made with bronze. According to Autumn Stanley, the author of “Mothers and Daughters of Invention”, in the Chalcolithic Near East copper tools did not replace obsidian tools because the obsidian tools were better. It is her belief that copper replaced stone because the copper tools shifted some of the power to men (Stanley, xxiii).

Following the Bronze Age was the Iron Age, which witnessed some of the greatest technological advances. There were great developments in furnaces, which made the melting of iron possible. There was the creation of cement, concrete, sewers, and aqueducts. After the Iron Age, the industrial revolutions established factory manufacturing and textile production. Then the last defined phase of technology is the 20^th century, with the creation of the telephones, radios, automobiles, and airplanes to name a few.Ö

Theories Regarding Gender Differences

The role of women in any aspect of society – including technology – is influenced by many factors. Before we can fully explain the role of women in the development of technology, we must first understand that which makes the situation of men and women in society different; we must understand the factors that may influence a woman’s place, or role, in society and in the development of technology.

Why do women have more influence in some areas of studies or trades (such as nursing and teaching), and why do they exert less influence in others (such as engineering or as physicians)? What makes a woman do more “womanly” things? In an attempt to understand or explain how women conform to “particular variations of gender norms”, scholars use five different theories. (Sapiro, 86) These theories include: 1) biological explanations, 2) psychoanalytic theory, 3) cognitive development theories, 4) learning theories, and 5) institutional theories.

The biological theory for explaining why women act in certain ways claims that biology (genetics) influences a woman’s physical characteristics, as well as their “character and mental and emotional capacities.”(Sapiro, 86)

The psychoanalytic theory is mainly the product of work by Sigmund Freud. According to this theory, “the basic element of the human psyche is the psychic energy often called drives or instincts.”(Sapiro, 86) Through the development of conflict within the subconscious, women and men develop distinct patterns of character.

The cognitive development theories place an emphasis on the impact of the social world and its organization on the development of the individual. (Sapiro, 95) According to a famous cognitive-development theorist, Lawrence Kohlberg, “Basic sexual attitudes are not patterned directly by either biological instincts or arbitrary cultural norms, but by the child’s cognitive organization of his social world along sex role dimensions.” (Sapiro, 95) Gender development is a process that involves an individual trying to figure out how he or she fits into society.

The learning theories are the most widely accepted in explaining the differences between men and women. These theories state that children are trained to be “masculine or feminine” and so are taught to have a certain pattern of behavior. (Sapiro, 100) According to these theories, a child’s parents, teachers, friends, and others all play a part in teaching him or her to act like a “boy”, or to act more like a “girl”. For instance, a boy that wants to take ballet is ridiculed and so decides to engage in a more “proper” activity like football.

Finally, institutional theories claim that men and women are essentially forced to be different by directing females to enter certain institutions. Discrimination plays a role in these theories by barring women from certain positions. Ö

Now that we have reviewed the theories regarding gender differences, we can continue with an analysis of how these differences carry over into the realm of technological development. For this purpose, it seems more reasonable that the learning theories and institutional theories would better explain the role of women in development than the other three theories discussed above. With an understanding of these theories we now turn to explaining the role of women in the development of technology.

Women and Technological Development

The role of women in the development of technology is stymied by two factors: 1) the fact that the sciences (to include engineering) are taught by a system of education that discourages (directly and indirectly) most females from participating, and 2) women are “socialized” to participate in more “feminine” occupations. Since scientific training is an important foundation for the development of technology, any barrier restricting women from being schooled in the sciences is at the same time a barrier restricting women from fully participating in the development of new technology.

According to Henry Etzkowitz, there exists a “male culture of science and “engineering” and most women don’t know how to properly respond to this “culture”. (Etzkowitz) Etzkowitz claims that the sciences and engineering fields of study are based on the male “traditional” characteristics of competitiveness and impersonal interaction. These methods of teaching/learning favor males since society has trained them from birth to be competitive and to not rely on others for help. The sciences reflect this gender bias, with the result of inhibiting women from reaching their full potential as contributors to the development of new technology.

Women are also influenced by society at an early age to take up more “ladylike” professions. Britta Schinzel describes how boys are expected to play with trucks and building blocks – an early example of social pressure defining roles in childhood. (Schinzel) This brings to the front the idea of gender socialization. The following section will examine exactly how the socialization of girls and boys has been a factor in the role women play in the development of new technology.

The Socialization of Girls and Boys

From a baby’s first breath the socialization of girls and boys has been a factor in the involvement of women with respect to technological development. “Stereotypes about subjects which have traditionally been identified as ‘masculine’ are operating to discourage girls from pursuing nontraditional careers.” (Silverman)

Socialization is a process by which a society’s values and norms are taught and learned. Socialization of men and women is a life long process that influences many choices and steps along the path of life. Gender socialization are those norms and values of society, pertaining to gender, that are taught and learned. Early childhood gender socialization is a very strong factor that influences the involvement of women in technology today. Through the process of socialization we teach children what their gender expectations are and influence what role they will play in life. From the moment of birth a child is labeled with particular traits on the basis of their sex. Little boys are wrapped in a blue blankets and given blue colored nametags symbolizing strength. Little girls are wrapped in pink blankets and given pink nametags symbolizing that they are dainty. (Renzetti & Curran 76)

Gender socialization can be a conscious effort in that expectations are reinforced or more indirect in that people observe the interactions of adults, children, etc. ÖSocialization can be taught to children by parents, siblings, friends, church, school, youth groups, personal experiences and mass media. For example children learn through their parents from parent child interactions. To help understand whether parent child interactions differed among those parents with a baby boy and those with a baby girl psychologist Liz Connors did some research. She found that boys and girls of three and a half to fourteen months showed few differences in behavior, however she found despite the similarity in behaviors of the children mothers of girls were more sensitive to the child and mothers of boys were more restrictive. It is also shown that parents of boys tend to engage in rougher more physical play than they do with girls and that “both parents are more likely to believe – and to act on the belief – that daughters need more help than sons,” in turn possibly setting the girls up for dependence and boys for independence in life. (Renzetti & Curran 87-8)

Children also learn from their parents through modeling. This is the process by which children imitate the behavior of their same-sex parent, especially if the parent rewards their imitations. The question becomes why do parents behave in different ways to children of different sexes. The stereotypes that have been placed in society tend to make us “discriminate on the basis of sex without intentionally trying.” Stereotypes are organized knowledge stored in memory based on people, objects, ideas and events. Stereotypes make the complex easier to understand.

When it comes to toys most little girls are directed towards or have toys pertaining to domesticity and motherhood while the toys for boys are about action and adventure. “In summary during early childhood, boys and girls… are socialized into separate and unequal genders… boys are taught independence, problem solving abilities, assertiveness, and curiosity about their environment – skills… valued in our society. In contrast, little girls are taught dependence, passivity, and domesticity traits that our society devalues.” (Renzetti & Curran 95)

Once children enter grade school gender socialization only becomes stronger. Research shows that teachers propose more academic challenges for boys than girls and give more praise to boys for the intellectual quality of their work and girls are praised for their congeniality and neatness. (Renzetti & Curran 106) The separation of boys and girls is not an uncommon set up in the classroom. There can be girls versus boy teams, or boy, girl lines, and even boy, girl-seating arrangements. These types of separations have three interrelated consequences. One is that sex separation prevents boys and girls from working together cooperatively. Two sex separation makes working in mixed sex groups uncomfortable and three sex separations reinforces gender stereotypes. “On school playgrounds, children typically organize themselves into sex—segregated groups to engage in what they consider gender-appropriate activities.” (Renzetti & Curran 110) Upon entering Junior High and High School interest change and opinions matter more and popularity becomes increasingly important. Boys are considered popular for their athletic ability, willingness to take risks and defy norms of politeness. Girls gain most popularity by physical attractiveness, stylish clothing and makeup. Women are also underrepresented in textbooks and course material, which can lead to lack strong women figures for girls to use for role models or mentors. Girls and boys also may avoid activities that are considered gender inappropriate for fear of rejection. (Renzetti & Curran 111) Such as those activities and games related to or fostering engineering and technology?

Is it not a wonder why women’s involvement in technology has been so under noted and almost considered non-existent. Socialization has taught us that women are not suppose to be independent and strong and that men are the ones we typically see in demanding fields such as technology. The separation of children through out childhood may make women feel the need to be separated in there fields of employment as well. For example entering the field of technology may make women feel out of place because technology is recognized as a demanding field of interest and typically portrays men as leaders in this field of study, this in turn discouraging women’s involvement in such areas. Also the lack of female recognition for the inventions and work that females have performed in this field may discourage women from actually entering. Society views technology as a field of study that is so demanding and advanced and therefore society views it normal for men to enter this field, however my view it as not normal for women to enter this field. Therefore questioning the reasons for women’s involvement and possibly in turn making women question their reasons for involvement. It only makes sense to see a man succeed and pursue the field of technology.

Conclusion

The involvement of women in the development of technology has been impeded by the ‘male culture’ of the sciences and engineering, and by a system of education in these fields that alienates most women students. Also, boys and girls are socialized as children to assume gender specific roles which carry over into adulthood. From the start, and through every stage of life, there are constant barriers that try to deter women from being full participants in the development of technology. This not only robs women of opportunities to contribute to technology development, but also ultimately robs the world of new ideas, inventions, and developments that can further the progress of humanity.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Building Their Future: Girls and Technology Education in Connecticut. Ed. Suzanna

Silverman and Alice M. Pritchard. 16 January 2003

http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/JTE/jte-v7n2/silverman.jte-v7n2.html.

Etzkowitz, Henry et al. Athena Unbound: The Advancement of Women in Science.

Cambridge UP, 2000.

Introduction to Technology. 10 January 2003 <http://www.bergen.org/technology/.

Renzetti, Claire M., and Daniel J. Curran. Women, Men, and Society. Boston: Person

Education, 2003.

Sapiro, Virginia. Women in American Society. Mountain View: Mayfield, 1999.

Stanley, Autumm. Mothers and Daughters of Invention. New Brunswick: Rutgers UP,

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Women in science and Engineering. Ed. Britta Schinzel. 16 January 2003

http://www.inesglobal.com/publication/ines_proceedings/Proceed_html/SCHINZEL.HTM