|
RECOGNIZING SIGNAL
WORDS PART II
Understanding
the Basic Patterns for Organizing Information
How do you normally
go about explaining your ideas to someone? Most of us do pretty much
the same thing: we use patterns of speech.
Although there are
many ways to express ideas, writers usually use speech patterns and
generally mix or combine them in paragraphs and passages. Once you begin
to understand these patterns, you should be able to follow the writer’s
sequence of ideas more readily and improve your comprehension. These
patterns will further help to clarify topics, key ideas, and the relationship
of supporting statements.
The writers’
purpose and the topic help determine how their material will be arranged.
Terms writers use to signal to the reader which organizational
method is being used should be familiar to you, since these are often
the very words instructors use in exams and quizzes: for example, classify,
define, list, describe, analyze. You have probably used these words
unconsciously when writing responses in test-taking situations. Understanding
patterns of organizations used by writers assists you in your reading/study
tasks and better prepares you to take examinations. These patterns can
also serve as models or examples for your own writing tasks.
| Sources:
|
Flemming,
Reading for Results, Houghton Mifflin Co., MA 1993.
Langan, College Writing Skills with Readings, McGraw-Hill
Book Co., NY 1989.
Vogel & Lehmann, Fundamentals of College Reading, Prentice
Hall, NJ 1993.
Wassman & Rinsky, Effective Reading in a Changing World,
Prentice Hall, NJ 1993. |
College
Reading Skills Program, 5/93; Revised 9/98.
SPACE
Space
signal words alert the reader as to the position or direction of
a particular subject, inanimate or not.
|
next to
to the
left
to the
right
nearby
|
across
on the
opposite side
below
above
|
Example:
On a recent Wednesday afternoon thousands of people gathered around
City Hall in Philadelphia to witness an experiment. Could a professional
ballplayer catch a baseball thrown from a height of 500 feet? Standing
atop City Hall was a pitcher for the Philadelphia Phillies. In
the street below an outfielder pounded his glove. The baseball,
upon reaching the outfielder, would be traveling with a force great
enough to maim or even kill.
Exercises:
| 1. |
The vegetable
bin of my refrigerator contained an assortment of weird-looking
items. Next to a shriveled, white-coated lemon was a pair of oranges
covered with blue fuzz. To the right of the oranges was a bunch
of carrots that had begun to sprout points, spikes, knobs, and tendrils.
Near the carrots was a net bag of onions. The most horrible item,
though, was a head of lettuce that had turned into a pool of brown
goo. This brown goo had seeped out of the bag and lined the bottom
with a sticky, bad-smelling liquid. (3 signal words) |
| 2. |
Lake Tahoe
is a wonderful place to visit. The lake is an unbelievable royal
blue color at its deepest parts and a fantastic aqua green color
at its shallowest. Across the majestic lake are the Sierra Nevada
mountains. Nearby the lake is the hot and dry state of Nevada; it
is only thirty minutes away coming from the northeast part of the
lake. Of all its admirable qualities, Lake Tahoešs vibrant colors
is the best one. (3 signal words) |
CLASSIFICATION
In using signal
words of classification,
a writer classifies information in a series of statements giving supporting
facts or details. The order in which the information is presented is
usually not significant and can be switched around without changing
the meaning.
|
categories
characteristics
classes
classify
divide
dimensions
|
elements
features
groups
kinds
methods
aspects
|
numbers
parts
sorts
types
ways
|
Example:
The Chinese responded to prejudice and persecution in two ways:
First, they created an insulated society-within-a-society that needed
little time from the dominant culture. Second, they displayed a stoic
willingness to persevere, and to take without complaint or resistance
whatever America dished out.
Exercises:
| 1. |
Many people
have to communicate and work with members of other cultures, and
social skills training is now being given to some of these who are
about to work abroad. Intercultural communication is necessary for
several kinds of people: tourist, government/business visitors,
and students in the peace corps. (1 signal word) |
| 2. |
Not all violence
is the same. Various thinkers have categorized violence in several
ways. One of the best is that of political scientist Fred R. van
der Mehden, who sees five general types of violence: primordial,
separatist, revolutionary, coups, and issues. (3 signal words) |
SEQUENCE OR TIME
ORDER
Sequence
or time order signal words help the reader see which important
details will be developed in a sequential pattern. Numbers may be used,
but for the purpose of showing time order or steps in a process, not
for the purpose of merely listing at random.
|
first
second
third
next
most important
last
eventually
then
meanwhile
|
above
adjacent
after
before
below
down
subsequently following this step
as
now
|
finally
furthermore
later
stages
steps
when
while
during
|
Example:
Most children go through similar stages when they are beginning
to talk. According to linguists, first, babies learn to babble.
Next, they speak in one word utterances. Following this stage,
at about the age of one and a half or two years old, children are speaking
in two word utterances. Subsequently, they are speaking in short
sentences. The actual age that children go through these stages
varies but most follow a similar sequence.
Exercises:
| 1. |
When a car
overheats and stalls from vapor lock, follow these steps. First,
if you are on the freeway, stay in your car. Wait until a member
of the highway patrol comes to help you get to the side of the road.
However, if it is safe to push the car to the side of the road by
yourself, do it. Once you are at the side of the road, lift the
hood and place a wet cloth on the fuel line and the fuel pump. If
you do not have a wet rag, then just sit there until things cool
off. Once you have cooled the line so that the gasoline is no longer
boiling, wrap the rag around the line. Better yet, carry some tinfoil
in your car. Tinfoil, wrapped around the line, carries the heat
away. When the car has cooled down, get back on the road, and act
as though nothing had happened. (7 signal words) |
| 2. |
If you are
going to be recording a lot of tapes, it would be wise to follow
these steps. Find a brand and type of tape that works well in your
machine and stick with it. This will save you money in the long
run, since tape is cheaper when bought by the case. Then, when unwrapping
a new tape, fast-wind it all the way through and then rewind it
back to the beginning. This will free up any sticking that may have
developed in the tape while it was stored. Following this step,
check the microphone and line level controls. If the recorder has
separate controls, turn down the one for the input youšre not using,
to prevent unnecessary noise in recording. Finally, be sure that
the recorderšs bias and EQ switching are set to the correct position
for the tape in use. (4 signal words) |
DEFINITION
Signal words
which define teach the technical language of the subject.
Sometimes they are straightforward; some are abstract.
|
define
is
is defined as
|
known as
that is
the term means
|
we mean
we can state
we refer to
|
Example:
Our country has been obsessed with youth for far too many years. Age
has been defined only as a decline from a peak of youth. Age is a fate
worse than death. Negative stereotypes of older people are reinforced
daily in the popular media, which contain very few examples of anyone
60 or older doing anything active or dynamic in society.
Exercises:
| 1. |
By self-esteem,
we refer to the evaluation which the individual makes and customarily
maintains with regard to himself or herself; it expresses an attitude
of approval or disapproval, and indicates the extent to which an
individual believes himself to be capable, significant, successful,
and worthy. In short, self-esteem is a personal judgment of worthiness
and is expressed in the attitudes that the individual holds towards
himself. It is a subjective experience which the individual conveys
to others by verbal reports and other overt expressive behavior.
(4 signal words) |
| 2. |
Creativity
is known as the act of bringing something new into the world, whether
a symphony, a novel, an improved layout for a supermarket, a new
and unexpected casserole dish. It is based first on communication
with oneself, then testing that communication with experience and
the realities one has to contend with. The result is the highest,
most exciting kind of learning. (2 signal words) |
END OF THE ROAD
SIGNALS – STOP
Stop signals
warn the reader to “slow down.” You should be anticipating
important information at this point. The most important ideas are about
to be presented in brief form or restated.
|
accordingly
to summarize
finally
the implication
in retrospect
to recapitulate
last of all
on the whole
|
last of all
consequently
the effect
in conclusion
thus
then
in brief
to sum up
|
basically
therefore
hence
the most inportant
in summary
as a result
in short
ultimately
|
Example:
Euthanasia is defined as mercy killing, either by the sick people themselves
or by their relatives or close friends. One controversial doctor is
a strong proponent of this act: Dr. Jack Krevorkian. Dr. Krevorkian
has publicly admitted to giving assistance to people who have committed
suicide. As a result, he has been called a saint by some, a murderer
by others.
Exercises:
| 1. |
Garlic is used
in various old-fashioned, cure-all remedies. A syrup made from garlic
is said to cure colds. A clove of garlic wrapped in a wet cloth
and kept on the chest will relive the discomforts of bronchitis.
And garlic really can be soothing when rubbed on insect bites. Garlic
does contain an antibiotic, allium, which doctors use to lower high
blood pressure in patients. Consequently, garlicšs value is not
all superstition. (1 signal word) |
| 2. |
Basically,
my grandmother was an extremely thrifty person. She was one of those
people who hoard pieces of used aluminum foil after carefully scraping
off the cake icing or beef gravy. She had a drawer full of old eyeglasses
that dated back at least thirty years. The lens prescriptions were
no longer accurate, but Gran couldn’t bear to throw away “a
pair of good eyeglasses.” She kept them “just in case,”
but we could never figure out what horrible situation would involve
a desperate need for a dozen pairs of old eyeglasses. We never realized
the true extent of Gran’s thriftiness, though, until after
she died. Her house was to be sold, and therefore we cleaned out
its dusty attic. We donated some of her belongings to charity, and
some were sold. On the whole, we made a decent amount of money and
decided to donate that to charity as well. (2 signal words) |
PRACTICE IN RECOGNIZING
SIGNAL WORDS
Activity 1
Below are some of the signal words that are most often used by writers.
Place each word under its proper heading below.
|
classes
accordingly
across
to the right
last
|
next
that is
features
near
after
|
is
hence
in summary
we mean
sorts
|
|
Classification
|
Definition
|
Space
|
|
_______________________
|
_______________________
|
_______________________
|
|
_______________________
|
_______________________
|
_______________________
|
|
_______________________
|
_______________________
|
_______________________
|
| |
|
Stop
|
Time
Sequence
|
|
|
_______________________
|
_______________________
|
|
_______________________
|
_______________________
|
|
_______________________
|
_______________________
|
Activity 2
Please circle the signal words in the passage below and then identify
the various types used.
| 1. |
Creative thinking
usually involves five stages. First, the problem is defined. Second,
creative thinkers saturate themselves with as much information as
they can find. Then comes the incubation stage. Next, problem solving
moves to an unconscious level and the mind ponders different possible,
or even impossible, solutions. The incubation stage is followed
by illumination. By illumination, we refer to a period of sudden
understanding or insight. Finally, there is the verification stage
when solutions or answers are critically evaluated. (9 signal words) |
| 2. |
If we study
a child’s handwriting, certain personality types are revealed.
First, if children have handwriting that is slanted only a little
to the right or is straight up and down, they have a moderate temperament
and use good judgment. This type is usually affectionate and sharing.
Second, if the handwriting slants to the far right, they are usually
emotional children who react quickly. Their quick responses are
often negative responses. The third type, children who write with
a backhand slant, are very logical, unemotional, and sometimes very
insecure. Therefore, their world seems to revolve around themselves
rather than around friends and loved ones. (7 signal words) |
ANSWER
KEY for RECOGNIZING SIGNAL WORDS PART II
SPACE
Exercises
| 1. |
The vegetable
bin of my refrigerator contained an assortment of weird-looking
items. Next to a shriveled, white-coated lemon was a pair
of oranges covered with blue fuzz. To the right of the oranges
was a bunch of carrots that had begun to sprout points, spikes,
knobs, and tendrils. Near the carrots was a net bag of onions.
The most horrible item, though, was a head of lettuce that had turned
into a pool of brown goo. This brown goo had seeped out of the bag
and lined the bottom with a sticky, bad-smelling liquid. (3 signal
words) |
| 2. |
Lake Tahoe
is a wonderful place to visit. The lake is an unbelievable royal
blue color at its deepest parts and a fantastic aqua green color
at its shallowest. Across the majestic lake are the Sierra
Nevada mountains. Nearby the lake is the hot and dry state
of Nevada; it is only thirty minutes away coming from the northeast
part of the lake. Of all its admirable qualities, Lake Tahoešs vibrant
colors is the best one. (3 signal words) |
CLASSIFICATION
Exercises
| 1. |
Many people
have to communicate and work with members of other cultures, and
social skills training is now being given to some of these who are
about to work abroad. Intercultural communication is necessary for
several kinds of people: tourist, government/business visitors,
and students in the peace corps. (1 signal word) |
| 2. |
Not all violence
is the same. Various thinkers have categorized violence in
several ways. One of the best is that of political scientist
Fred R. van der Mehden, who sees five general types of violence:
primordial, separatist, revolutionary, coups, and issues. (3 signal
words) |
SEQUENCE OR TIME
ORDER Exercises
| 1. |
When
a car overheats and stalls from vapor lock, follow these steps.
First, if you are on the freeway, stay in your car. Wait
until a member of the highway patrol comes to help you get to the
side of the road. However, if it is safe to push the car to the
side of the road by yourself, do it. Once you are at the
side of the road, lift the hood and place a wet cloth on the fuel
line and the fuel pump. If you do not have a wet rag, then
just sit there until things cool off. Once you have cooled
the line so that the gasoline is no longer boiling, wrap the rag
around the line. Better yet, carry some tinfoil in your car. Tinfoil,
wrapped around the line, carries the heat away. When the
car has cooled down, get back on the road, and act as though nothing
had happened. (7 signal words) |
| 2. |
If you are
going to be recording a lot of tapes, it would be wise to follow
these steps. Find a brand and type of tape that works well in
your machine and stick with it. This will save you money in the
long run, since tape is cheaper when bought by the case. Then,
when unwrapping a new tape, fast-wind it all the way through and
then rewind it back to the beginning. This will free up any sticking
that may have developed in the tape while it was stored. Following
this step, check the microphone and line level controls. If
the recorder has separate controls, turn down the one for the input
youšre not using, to prevent unnecessary noise in recording. Finally,
be sure that the recorderšs bias and EQ switching are set to the
correct position for the tape in use. (4 signal words) |
DEFINITION Exercises
| 1. |
By self-esteem,
we refer to the evaluation which the individual makes and customarily
maintains with regard to himself or herself; it expresses an attitude
of approval or disapproval, and indicates the extent to which an
individual believes himself to be capable, significant, successful,
and worthy. In short, self-esteem is a personal judgment
of worthiness and is expressed in the attitudes that the
individual holds towards himself. It is a subjective experience
which the individual conveys to others by verbal reports and other
overt expressive behavior. (4 signal words) |
| 2. |
Creativity
is known as the act of bringing something new into the world,
whether a symphony, a novel, an improved layout for a supermarket,
a new and unexpected casserole dish. It is based first on
communication with oneself, then testing that communication with
experience and the realities one has to contend with. The result
is the highest, most exciting kind of learning. (2 signal words) |
END OF THE ROAD SIGNALS
– STOP Exercises
| 1. |
Garlic is used
in various old-fashioned, cure-all remedies. A syrup made from garlic
is said to cure colds. A clove of garlic wrapped in a wet cloth
and kept on the chest will relive the discomforts of bronchitis.
And garlic really can be soothing when rubbed on insect bites. Garlic
does contain an antibiotic, allium, which doctors use to lower high
blood pressure in patients. Consequently, garlicšs value
is not all superstition. (1 signal word) |
| 2. |
Basically,
my grandmother was an extremely thrifty person. She was one of those
people who hoard pieces of used aluminum foil after carefully scraping
off the cake icing or beef gravy. She had a drawer full of old eyeglasses
that dated back at least thirty years. The lens prescriptions were
no longer accurate, but Gran couldn’t bear to throw away “a
pair of good eyeglasses.” She kept them “just in case,”
but we could never figure out what horrible situation would involve
a desperate need for a dozen pairs of old eyeglasses. We never realized
the true extent of Gran’s thriftiness, though, until after
she died. Her house was to be sold, and therefore we cleaned out
its dusty attic. We donated some of her belongings to charity, and
some were sold. On the whole, we made a decent amount of
money and decided to donate that to charity as well. (2 signal words) |
PRACTICE IN RECOGNIZING SIGNAL WORDS Exercises
|
Classification
|
Definition
|
Space
|
|
classes
|
is
|
near
|
|
features
|
that
is
|
across
|
|
sorts
|
we
mean
|
to
the right
|
| |
|
Stop
|
Time
Sequence
|
|
|
hence
|
next
|
|
in
summary
|
last
|
|
accordingly
|
after
|
Activity 2
Please circle the signal words in the passage below and then identify
the various types used.
| 1. |
Creative thinking
usually involves five stages (classification). First (time
sequence) , the problem is defined. Second (time sequence),
creative thinkers saturate themselves with as much information as
they can find. Then (time sequence) comes the incubation
stage. Next (time sequence), problem solving moves to an
unconscious level and the mind ponders different possible, or even
impossible, solutions. The incubation stage (classification)
is followed by (time sequence) illumination. By illumination,
we refer to (definition) a period of sudden understanding
or insight. Finally (time sequence), there is the verification
stage when solutions or answers are critically evaluated. (9 signal
words) |
| 2. |
If we study
a child’s handwriting, certain personality types (classification)
are revealed. First (time sequence), if children have handwriting
that is slanted only a little to the right or is straight up and
down, they have a moderate temperament and use good judgment. This
type (classification) is usually affectionate and sharing.
Second (time sequence), if the handwriting slants to the
far right, they are usually emotional children who react quickly.
Their quick responses are often negative responses. The third
(time sequence) type (classification), children who
write with a backhand slant, are very logical, unemotional, and
sometimes very insecure. Therefore (stop), their world seems
to revolve around themselves rather than around friends and loved
ones. (7 signal words) |
Flemming, Reading
for Results, Houghton Mifflin Co., MA 1993.
Langan, Reading and Study Skills, McGraw-Hill Book Co., NY 1989.
Vogel & Lehmann, Fundamentals of College Reading, Prentice Hall,
NJ 1993.
Wassman & Rinsky, Effective Reading in a Changing World, Prentice
Hall, NJ 1993.
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